Доклад К.Селло (Ботсвана)/ Dr. Kagiso Jacob Sello (Botswana)

[Irina Tivyaeva]

WHY EQUIP FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNERS WITH BASIC TRANSLATION SKILLS?

Kagiso Jacob Sello

Although language teachers and foreign language departments at universities and colleges traditionally used translation as a teaching technique, they have not shown any marked proclivity to help learners become professional translators. So far, the training of translators has been […] left to personal interests, ingenuity, experience and chance. (Tingsley and Horn 1971:10)

Introduction
When we talk of translation and learning a foreign language, the first thing that comes to our mind is the use of the former as a pedagogical tool to teach the latter. The literature which discusses the legitimacy of translation as a pedagogical tool is visible everywhere (Duff 1989, Atkinson 1993, Edge 1986, Eadie 1999). In this article, we will however not be focusing on the use of translation to teach foreign languages but the teaching of translation as a discipline in its own rights to learners of foreign languages in order to familiarise them with different aspects of the metier of translation (Lavault-Olleon, 1998a, 1998b; Sello, 2012).The problem discussed in this paper is therefore the relevance of teaching translation to foreign language learners in the current educational, economic and social context of Botswana. The aim of the article is to show that equipping foreign language learners with basic translation skills can be beneficial to learners, to the profession of translation and to consumers of translation services as a whole.

What do we mean by basic translation skills?
If a strong case is to be made for teaching translation to foreign language learners, then we need to advance solid reasons in support of that initiative. We need to ask ourselves and answer the following questions: why do foreign language learners need basic translation skills and how will this benefit to the profession and consumers? But before advancing these reasons, it is maybe necessary to start by discussing what we mean by basic translation skills. Let us also precise that we will be adopting the following definition of skill: an ability and capacity acquired through deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to smoothly and adaptively carry out complex activities.
Translation competency is a complex activity that requires a number of skills, some of which have long lasting impact on the mastery and success of the translation activity (For more on translation competence, see Gile, 2009 ; Göpferich, 2009; Neubert, 2000; PACTE, 2003, 2005; Vienne, 2000). These are what we refer to as basic translation skills. These skills are bricks on which every translator should build their future knowledge in order to develop excellent translation proficiency. Indeed, research conducted by translation studies scholars seem to reflect that weaknesses regularly observed and reported are related to basic rather than advanced skills (Gile and Hansen, 2004). The understanding on what skills should form this foundation varies from institution to institution, or from country to country at specific moments according to the needs and objectives of each moment. Therefore, the following skills are what appear fundamental to us in the current context of Botswana and might not correspond to basic translation skills elsewhere.
In this article, translation skills will be distinguished from interpretation skills even though the two share the common goal of transferring information from one language (source language) into another language (target language). The term translation as used in this discussion will refer uniquely to the transferring of written language and shall be understood as such at all times.

Reading skills
One of the basic skills, and perhaps the first skills that a translator must develop, are the reading skills. Indeed, a translator needs to know how to read and comprehensively understand texts in the source language and the target language without an extensive use of dictionaries. Without the reading skills necessary to read for translation purposes, it is impossible for the translator to even engage in the process of transferring a message from one language to the other. Reading skills are as such the gateway to a successful translation.
A translator also needs to extensively and frequently read texts from different fields written in both the source and the target languages. A translator, especially if s/he is not specialising in any field, need to read beyond what they normally read in order to reinforce their knowledge of different fields and be up to date with the terminology and the phraseology used in each field.
In a translation class for foreign language learners, reading skills will be the most demanding to develop since learners will have to be taught to read texts in the foreign language (Gaonac’h, 2000; Souchon, 2000). Indeed, learners will be expected, more especially during the first years of training, to translate from the foreign language into languages at which they are more proficient. The choice of text is therefore primordial. They have to be adapted to the level of foreign language proficiency that the learners have achieved so that learners can read them with confidence and should also be relevant to what a professional translator can be called upon to translate.

Writing skills
A translator needs a good command of writing skills in the target language. S/he needs to know how to write correctly in order to communicate with clarity and effectiveness. Writing skills entails good command of the grammar, vocabulary, spelling and punctuations conventions of the language that the translator translates into. If the translator does not respect the syntactic and orthographic rules of the languages s/he is writing, s/he runs the risk of not being understood or being read.
During an activity of translation in a foreign language class, most learners seem to be hypnotised by the source text to such an extent that they are not capable of effectively conveying the meaning in the target language, even when the target language is a language at which they are most proficient. As a result, they tend to write the target language using the syntax of the source language, what is otherwise known as syntactic calques. The need to write clearly is therefore an important aspect of familiarising foreign language students with the metier of translation.

Editing and Proof reading skills
Closely related to the writing skills above are the editing and proof reading skills (Cf: Einsohn, 2000; Tarshis, 1998; Ascher, 1993; Lane and Ellen, 1993). Editing and Proof reading skills, not usually associated with translation, are very important in written communication. They refer to the careful examination of a written document before the final version is produced in order to find and correct errors and mistakes which might have occurred during typing.
Editing involves the first stage of revising translation in order to verify the naturalness of the translation, use of the correct terminology as well as the use of appropriate tone. Proof reading on the other hand is normally engaged to detect what is known as surface errors and mistakes which might involve choice of words, syntax, punctuation and spelling and is carried out as a final stage of revision. These two processes should be carried out even if one has good command of writing skills of the target language because they tremendously increase the value and readability of the translation. A translator, as a writer, therefore cannot overlook editing and proof reading in order to ensure that translated content correspond to the content of the source document and that it communicate clearly and effectively to the end user.

Technical skills
In order to develop excellent translation proficiency, a translator should have a good command of a number of tools including different knowledge-providing sources like bilingual dictionaries as well as supporting tools that provide valuable assistance in ensuring consistency within documents in form of Machine Translation (MT) and Computer-Aided Translation (CAT). The consumption of translation services has increased tremendously over the year and translators are faced with the task of translating colossal amounts of documents in a short period of time while at the same time ensuring best quality products. Initiation to translation aiding tools is therefore an important element of translator training program.
At the University of Botswana for example, there are two translation courses offered during the fourth year of foreign language learning. One of the weaknesses observed regularly during these courses concern the use of the most basic learning tool, the bilingual dictionary. Bilingual dictionaries are the most used and the most essential learning tool in a foreign language class. However, teachers tend to assume that learners have already used a dictionary in their first or second language and forget that using a bilingual dictionary requires more than just looking up a word in the source language and picking the first equivalent word proposed in the target language. Consequently, learning how to use them effectively and efficiently has always been left upon the shoulders of the learners.
However, the dangers inherent to the use of a bilingual dictionary seem to be unknown to these learners (Galisson, 1991). This, according to Galisson, is due to the fact that foreign language words lead directly to words that learners know in their language. This idea is reinforced by small bilingual dictionaries, used mostly by learners, where words from the two languages are regarded as codes with exact correspondence of terms (Duval, 1991). And since learners have not been warned about difficulties of using bilingual dictionary, they cannot use it cautiously. As such, teaching learners on how to use translation aiding tools cannot be overlooked.

Research skills
Translation as a process typically involves a lot of research, whether online or in specialized documents. As such, learners have to be taught how to and where to search for the resources they need in order to translate effectively. They also need to know how to evaluate the resources so that they are able to choose the most relevant resources depending on the text they have to translate. Indeed, the relevance and the validity of documents that a translator refers to during translation have direct incidence on the quality and the value of the translation.

It is without doubt that research that will be carried more often by foreign language learners will concern terminology research, and precisely punctual term research, that is, term research done at a precise moment in time. A lot of terminology database exist especially in the Internet. Indeed, Internet offers many possibilities in real time. Some of the databases found in the Internet are dedicated to posting terms or phrases which have already been translated. These databases are very useful in that they are posts done by actual translators and where discussions on how to translate a certain term are very useful. Learners also need to be taught to look for sample of texts to be translated in both the source and the target languages. They should know that they cannot rely on dictionaries at all times. And since we are talking about the Internet, it is equally important to note that learners need to be cautioned about the use of this resource.

Benefits to learners
According to Ballard (1986), those involved in the teaching and learning of foreign languages should keep in mind the fact that learners of foreign languages possess at least one language system which is not only firmly rooted to their linguistic system but also associated with the learners system of thought. And as such, for the foreign language learners, the learning situation is immediately reorganized by this deeply rooted language and the foreign language can only acquire its meaning through the screen of that language (Bouton, 1974). Consequently, the idea that a foreign language can be learned independently of the language at which learners are more proficient and excluding any form of translation is a pure “pedagogical hypothesis” (Ladmiral, 1994) with no real foundation. The question therefore is not whether translation has its place in a foreign language but how to use it in a way that will benefit the learners.
We are of the view that if translation is offered to foreign language learners as a discipline and not as a technical tool, it can be a tremendous asset to language learning. By developing the basic translation skills named above, learners will work on their linguistic competencies in both the source and the target language. The development of these skills will help learners broaden their lexical and syntactic knowledge as well as semantic rules of languages in contact through a contrastive study. They will also learn how to analyse and find solution to linguistic problems related to different texts and fields. Translation will as such raise learners’ consciousness of the non-parallel nature of languages (Atkinson, 1993).
The development of these skills will also help prepare learners for a number of professions not limited to teaching foreign language. In the context of Botswana for example, most of foreign language learners end up as foreign language teachers. Equipping these learners with basic translation skills will broaden their professional scope. Learners can venture into other professions requiring some of these basic translation skills and become editors or terminologists just to mention but a few.
Studying costs a lot of money and it is difficult to find scholarships for programs such as Translation. The situation is further complicated by high tuition fees in translation schools. As such, most of foreign language learners rely largely on autonomous learning. Teaching basic translation skills to theses learners will therefore help them achieve their translation proficiency in less time than if they were to learn them on their own (Viaggio, 1991). This idea is echoed by Gile (2009) for whom

[…] formal training can […] help individuals […] enhance their performance to the full realization of their potential. […] and help them develop their translation skills more rapidly than through field experience and self-instruction, which may involve much groping and learning by trial-and-error. (p. 7)

This initiative can therefore be of economic interest to learners of foreign languages. Developing basic translation skills can also create active learning and help learners “engage is some activity that forces them to reflect upon ideas and how they are using those ideas (Collins & O’Brien, 2003: 6), and help create
[…] environments and experiences that bring students to discover and construct knowledge for themselves, to make students members of communities of learners that make discoveries and solve problems. (Barr & Tagg, 1995: 15).

Benefits to the profession
Learning a foreign language has always been associated with translation. This association is relevant in that foreign language learning and translation share in common the fact that they can only exist where two or more languages come into contact. Indeed, translation is a process of transferring a message from one language (source language) into one or more languages (target languages) and foreign language learning creates a language contact situation in the sense that the Foreign language get into contact with the languages that the learners have learned in their childhood and which they routinely use for speaking and writing. It is therefore not a surprise to note that one of the general misconceptions in translation practice is reducing translation to bilingualism and automatically treating every bilingual individual as a translator. It is nevertheless true that bilingualism is a stage that is preliminary to the development of translation competence (Presas, 2009).
By offering translation as a discipline in its own right to foreign language learners, we believe that this will be the first step in making learners, and the community at large, aware that learning a foreign language or bilingualism does not make one a translator and that to be a translator one has to have developed certain skills. Learning languages is necessary but not sufficient for translation proficiency and efficiency, the same as driving a car from home to work every day cannot make one a Formula 1 pilot.
Equipping foreign language can also help to refurbish and enhance the image of translator. Developments to train translators to ensure quality service provision and supply the market with reliable professionals (Gile, 1995) have been a preoccupation for Translation Studies scholars for years. However, the results have not been up to par because of untrained bilingual who mistakenly believe that being competent in two languages make one a translator. The image of translators has long been tanned by incompetent foreign language learners and bilinguals who, to make ends meet, has never hesitated in offering their services to those who were soliciting them. By equipping foreign language students with basic translation skills, we will be reducing the number of incompetent translators to be.

Benefits to the consumers
A good number of translation service consumers are not willing to pay the price asked by professional translators. So they always turn to the services of foreign language learners or graduates. Unfortunately, it is difficult to refrain foreign language learners from offering their translation services to those who solicit them, especially given the economic situation of learners in Botswana. Furthermore, the consumers are usually monolingual and as such not competent to call the proper tune (Schmitt, 1966). By equipping foreign language learners with basic translation skills is a way to persuade the public that translators need training and that they have to right to translation services of a better quality.

Conclusion
Equipping foreign language students can be inarguably beneficial to learners, the profession of translation and the consumers. Learners will be able to improve their linguistic competency in both the source and the target language. They will also be able improve their chances of employability as they will acquire a variety of skills. Learners will also be equipped with skills that will allow them to offer translation services of a better quality, to be quickly operational once in the field and to adapt to the changing needs of the market. The profession and consumers will also benefit from this in that there will be less incompetent would-be-translators to offer services on the market.


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Kagiso Jacob Sello, Dr., Professor, French Department, Faculty of Humanities, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana

[Fatma Ben Slamia]

Dear Jacob,

I share your attitude that learners of translation should be equipped with some learning skills. But don't you think that out of all the skills stated in your article, the reading skill is the most important one because if decoding the source text goes wrong, then the whole translation process would be erroneous including writing, editing etc??

[Sellojk]

Dear Jacob,

I share your attitude that learners of translation should be equipped with some learning skills. But don't you think that out of all the skills stated in your article, the reading skill is the most important one because if decoding the source text goes wrong, then the whole translation process would be erroneous including writing, editing etc??

Good morning Fatma Ben Slamia and thank you very much for your question. Of course reading skills are very important (but I would not say the most important). They constitute the entrance to the process of translation. A translation student would need some good reading skills to interprete a text. But I have noticed that most of the students I have in my class understood what they were reading. Th exercice that I use most of the time to see if it is the comprehension or the expression that went wrong when translating is the reformulation of the source phrase/text. Most students are able to reformulate the original idea. But their translation is not correct. Then I came to the consclusion that, in that case, it is their writing skills in the target language which pose a problem.
Research skills. A student should know how to look for that information which will make the translation sound right. Most students are able to translate but using everyday language when they are supposed to use the language used in the field of the text. This lovwers the quality of the translation. So I believe that it is also important to teach them to look for these "right terms". Students should know when to look for them, where to look and how to look. Which brings me to believe that these skills need to be taken as a whole rather than in isolation for one to have what it takes to translate. I Hope I have answered your question.